World War I (WWI)

French soldiers moving into attack from their trench during the Verdun battle, 1916.

World War I (WWI) marked the first great international conflict of the twentieth century. The trauma of the war profoundly shaped the attitudes and actions of both leaders and ordinary people during the Holocaust. The impact of the conflict and the divisive peace that followed echoed in the decades to come, giving rise to a second world war and the genocide committed under its cover.

Outbreak of War

World War I began following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife, Duchess Sophie, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Fighting commenced in August 1914 and would continue for four years across multiple continents.

The Major Powers

The conflict pitted the Allies against the Central Powers.

Allies:

Britain
France
Serbia
Imperial Russia
Japan
Later joined by: Italy, Romania, Portugal, Greece, Siam (Thailand), Brazil, and the United States

Central Powers:

Germany
Austria-Hungary
Later joined by: the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria

Nature of the Conflict

Initially characterized by enthusiasm and expectations of a swift victory, the war devolved into a grueling stalemate. Trench warfare, especially on the western front, became the dominant method of combat. The trench system in Western Europe stretched approximately 475 miles, from the North Sea to the Swiss border.

Due to the vast geography on the eastern front, large-scale trench warfare was less prevalent, though the conflict was equally intense. Fighting also occurred in Italy, the Balkans, the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. For the first time, air combat played a role in warfare.

Turning Points

A significant turning point came in 1917 when the United States declared war on Germany. American involvement, led by General John J. Pershing and the American Expeditionary Force, shifted the balance in favor of the Allies. That same year, the Russian Empire experienced two revolutions. The Bolsheviks, who seized power, signed a separate peace treaty with the Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918, ceding large portions of territory, including Finland, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, and parts of Poland and Lithuania.

The War’s End

Germany concentrated its forces on the western front after Russia exited the war. By mid-1918, German troops had advanced to within 50 miles of Paris. However, the Allied counteroffensive, strengthened by two million American soldiers, pushed them back during the “Hundred Days’ Offensive.”

One by one, the Central Powers surrendered:

Bulgaria (September 1918)
Ottoman Empire (October 1918)
Austria-Hungary (November 3, 1918)

By November 8, Germany sent a delegation to accept the armistice terms. On November 9, the German Kaiser abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed. Fighting ceased at 11:00 a.m. on November 11, 1918.

The Treaty of Versailles

The subsequent Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany, including the loss of 13% of its territory, a significant reduction in its military, and heavy reparations. Many Germans linked these humiliations to the newly established democratic government, contributing to future political instability.

Casualties and Consequences

World War I was one of the most destructive wars in modern history.

Military deaths: Over 8.5 million soldiers
Wounded: An estimated 21 million
Civilian deaths: Up to 13 million, primarily due to starvation, disease, and massacres
Spanish Flu pandemic: Emerged near war’s end, causing additional millions of deaths globally

Germany and Russia suffered the highest number of military deaths (1.77 million and 1.7 million, respectively). France lost 16% of its mobilized forces - the highest proportional loss. July 1, 1916, marked the deadliest single day, with the British suffering over 57,000 casualties at the Battle of the Somme.

The war displaced millions and devastated infrastructure across Europe, particularly in France and Belgium.

Source: “World War I,” Holocaust Encylopedia.

Photo: Collection DocAnciens/docpix.fr, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.