Addressing Major International Issues
by Linda Livni
Most of Israel is dryland and 60% of it is the Negev
Desert. MASHAV, the
Center for International Cooperation of Israel's Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, places special emphasis on the critical issues of desertification
and developing the desert by introducing international cooperative programs
of training, project development and research; these relate to land
and water limitations, yet always aim at identifying comparative advantages
that may be inherent in specific dryland locations.
Programs are coordinated with the Israeli Ministries
of Agriculture and Environment and the Keren
Kayemet (Jewish National Fund) - the country's largest NGO dealing
with land amelioration, water conservation and afforestation. This document
was prepared by an inter-agency professional committee representing
the institutions engaged in research and development.
We hope and believe that international cooperation
in this important subject will gather momentum
through mutual networking aimed at sharing
accumulated knowledge in different countries
for the welfare of their peoples and for ecological
sustainability.
Desertification: What is it? Where
is it? How Big is the Threat?
Desertification is nothing new. Traces of
ancient lakes are found in the midst of the
Sahara; relic plants of tropical origin are
found in the Negev. Once, many eons ago, these
lands were very fertile but as the climate
changed the regions became arid, leaving behind
reminders of ancient productivity. Desertification
was part of the natural development of our
planet.
There are indications that in more recent
times a slow warming of the climate may have
dried up previously fertile areas - but the
advent of humanity played a more dramatic
role. Salinization of productive land caused
by over- irrigation may have hastened the
decline of ancient Babylon. Hills and plains
in Asia Minor and the Middle East were denuded
of forests for wood to build fleets of ships,
army camps and the machines of war. The consequences
of one war were described 1,900 years ago
by the historian Josephus Flavius, who wrote
that in the Galilee "hilltops were stripped
of trees and cleared of stones, and in the
hills around Jerusalem "where there had
been a lovely vista of woods and parks there
was now nothing but desert."
Today desertification is spreading at the
rate of some half million hectares each year
- an area the size of the state of Kansas.
Defined in the UN Convention to Combat Desertification
as the degradation of marginally productive
drylands (arid, semi and and dry-subhumid),
it is happening in North and South America,
southern Europe, Asia and Australia; in Africa
over one billion hectares are affected by
desertification. It is primarily caused by
human mismanagement, which is intimately linked
to the exponential growth of the world's population
overtaxing the fragile resources of dryland
ecosystems.
Dryland ecosystems cover about 47% of the
earth's land surface. There is, however, a
considerable amount of difference between
them. Some of them, covering 7% of global
lands, are hyper-arid. These are barely productive
and provide a meager existence to small populations,
usually nomadic, who depend upon water sources
in oases and wells. Hyper-arid regions include
the Sahara-Arabian deserts and the Gobi desert.
Other types of drylands are consecutively
more productive: Arid lands, about 12% of
the earth's landmass, have some precipitation
and are marginally productive. These produce
enough growth to feed the livestock of nomadic
pastoralists. If they are not overpopulated,
they are not normally overgrazed.
Semi-arid lands occupy 17.7% of the earth's
land surface and can sustain pastoralists
and subsistence agriculture without irrigation
if they are not overpopulated.
Dry-subhumid areas, covering some 10% of global lands,
can support a limited amount of rainfed cropland in valleys and plateaus
and pastoralism on hillsides and slopes.
It is these last three types - arid, semi and and
dry-subhumid - that are in danger of becoming desertified. Their fragile
resources are drained by too many people making heavy demands of land
only marginally suited for agricultural purposes. large herds over-graze,
thereby damaging vegetation and exposing topsoil to erosion; farmers
over-cultivate, depleting the soil of its fertility, and over-irrigate,
lowering water tables and salinizing the soil. Extensive areas are denuded
of trees and shrubs in the quest for fuel and fodder. As more trees
are felted to clear more land for cultivating crops to feed more people,
ever widening bands of barrenness are sown.
Desertification is not generally caused by willful
exploitation; it is a consequence of the need to survive in areas which
cannot support large populations. One sixth of the world's population,
some 900 million people in 100 countries on six continents, are threatened
by desertification.
However, not at[ desertified areas are irrevocably
lost. Desertification can be hatted, dryland productivity can be increased
and these lands can sustain growing populations by careful management
and by making optimal use of delicate resources.
Desertification
in the Mediterranean Basin and Middle East
Most of the Mediterranean Coast and the
Middle East is covered by dryland and all
nations in the region have suffered desertification.
The intensive development of the Mediterranean
coast and the burgeoning population are putting
tremendous stress on delicate, dryland ecosystems.
In the Middle East, where the rate of population
growth is 3% annually, there were 76 million
people in 1950. The figure is now approaching
200 million.
The heightened demand for fresh water for
domestic, industrial and agricultural use
is depleting or polluting limited reserves
of fresh water; virtually every country bordering
the Mediterranean suffers from salt-water
intrusion into its coastal aquifers. The development
of resort areas and the growth of cities along
the coast is accompanied by another water
problem - unregulated sewage dumping which
pollutes sea water and beaches and percolates
into fresh water aquifers.
Over-irrigation, an age-old practice, and
the use of chemical fertilizers and weed control
agents have caused salinization in marginally
productive drylands throughout the region.
Even areas with ample fresh water resources
and fertile land suffer salinization and waterlogging;
it is estimated that over 30% of the Nile
Delta and Valley is so affected.
Soil erosion is a problem of vast proportions.
In the past 25 years the increased cultivation
of marginal [and and poor management of rangeland
nave contributed to the loss of two million
hectares of agricultural land in North Africa.
The land, however, is not entirely "lost";
storms carry tiny particles of dust and sand
across the sea. Some 6% of them reach the
northern and eastern Mediterranean coasts
where, during severe storms, the concentration
of particulates in the air may be as high
as 6,000 micrograms per cubic meter, some
200 times more than normal.
About 35% of the Middle East experiences
soil erosion of between 5 to 50 tons per hectare
annually as a result of over exploitation
and over 130 million hectares of rangeland
have degenerated. In many areas overgrazing
destabilized sand dunes, causing them to drift
and lose their productivity.
However, it is not erosion alone that has
caused the loss of productive land. It is
also gobbled up by rapidly expanding urban
and industrial sprawl.
Similar problems of environmental degradation and
desertification are shared by all countries in the Mediterranean Basin
and the Middle East. Water sources are shared by two, three or even
four countries; deserts ignore international boundaries. Each country
has indigenous knowledge and new technologies under development. Cooperation
in combating desertification will benefit the entire region.
Geography,
Climate and Ecology in Israel
Israel is on the crossroads of Asia, Africa
and Europe. The Implementation Annexes of
the UN Convention for Combating Desertification
relate to four regions of the earth that suffer
major problems of desertification; three of
the four meet in Israel. The southern part
of the country joins the African Sahara-Arabian
desert belt. The central part is an extension
of the Asian steppes, and northern Israel
borders the northern Mediterranean region.
A small country, just 24,000 km in size,
nearly all of Israel is dryland and within
its borders lie all four of the world's distinctive
dryland types: hyper-arid, arid, semi-arid
and dry-subhumid.
The rainfall in the country at sea level
varies from 800mm in the north to less than
50mm in the south - a distance of just 420
kilometers. Virtually all precipitation occurs
in the cool months between October and April,
while high evaporation rates typify the hot
summers.
As land values in the north and central parts
of the country rise because of the thickening
population density (93% live in those areas,
particularly along the coast), irrigated and
rainfed agricultural land in the dry sub-humid
region is dwindling, replaced by increasing
cultivation in the drier Negev. While there
are farms even in the hyper-arid regions of
Israel, it is the semi-arid northern Negev
that is being developed most intensely for
agricultural production with fresh water transported
from the north of the country, brackish water
from vast aquifers that lie under the desert,
recycled wastewater and collected run-off
water.
Some 60% of the country is covered by the
Negev, which is comprised of three out of
the four dryland types (hyper-arid, arid and
semiarid). It is a tiny desert by world standards
but its empty areas are Israel's open frontier
for sustainable development.
The semi-arid northern Negev, with a mean
annual precipitation of 200-350mm, supports
rangelands, rainfed winter wheat sometimes
supplemented by irrigation, and other irrigated
croplands.
The arid Negev highlands, with up to 200mm
of rainfall, are characterized by vast barren
areas, some irrigated agriculture and rangelands.
The hyper-arid southern Negev and Arava Rift Valley,
with up to 50mm of rainfall, are mostly barren, with some irrigated
oasis agriculture.
The Israeli
Experience: Agricultural Development vs. Sustainability
The six-fold increase in population over the last
50 years led to the rapid and intense development of the country. Israel's geography forced agriculturists and scientists to overcome the challenges presented
by drylands - at first by trial and error, and later by developing more
scientific approaches. The development of agro-technology led to a per
capita decrease in the amount of land used for agriculture but an increase
in agricultural productivity per unit area of land. The consequences
of this intensive cultivation, however, often cause soil erosion and
salinization.
The Development and Use of Water Resources
Israel uses virtually 100% of its fresh water resources; most of them are in the north. The water is transported to
the center and south of the country by the National Water Carrier and
allocation of fresh water is strictly regulated. Since it is barely
sufficient for domestic, industrial and agricultural requirements, the
search for new water sources and implementation of conservation measures
are national priorities. The development of drip irrigation in Israel
in the early 70's revolutionized dryland agriculture because it dramatically
reduced the amount of water needed for irrigation. It also allowed farmers
to use poor quality water; the salts in brackish water do not damage
the leaf canopy as would be the case with sprinkler irrigation, and
when using recycled waste-water health problems are minimized by targeting
certain crops (such as cotton) and directing water to the roots. Protected
agriculture is another technique that conserves water since it reduces
evaporation.
New Water
Sources
Brackish and geothermal fossil water - The
discovery of lakes of brackish water under
the desert along with the advent of drip irrigation
led to the proliferation of agricultural enterprises.
Use of this resource must be carefully monitored
to prevent soil salinization, but it is a
prime factor in aquaculture as well as conventional
agriculture.
Recycled wastewater - Effluent from the heavily
populated central part of the country is treated
and piped to the south where it is used for
agriculture. Recycled waste-water is rich
in nitrates and phosphates so it saves on
fertilizer. Use of this resource is carefully
managed and monitored.
Harvesting flood water - There are a variety
of ways to harvest run-off water - all based
on know-how once common in the region, but
enhanced by technological and scientific advances.
On a broad scale, water from very extensive
watershed areas is collected into large reservoirs
and is piped to nearby farms for irrigation
or used to recharge aquifers. These reservoirs
can also be developed for recreational purposes.
Simpler harvesting schemes convey water directly
to crops planted in low-lying areas or wadi
beds, employing ancient methods which are
very practical for small agricultural enterprises
and in areas without highly developed technical
infrastructures.
Introduction
and Preservation of Plants Tolerant to Drought
and Desert Conditions
Carefully managed dryland agriculture has
produced surprisingly diverse results, but
it is not a simple matter; overcoming the
difficulties has given birth to agro-technology
systems in the desert. The effect of extreme
temperature variations has been ameliorated
by the widespread use of geothermal water
and mulching; greenhouse technology has been
developed to suit the special needs of desert
conditions; irrigation methods are designed
to suit specific crops in specific locations.
Throughout the Negev new crops are tested
in experimental fields and a special synergy
has developed between farmers and scientists.
Developing saline-resistant crops - Certain
varieties of tomatoes, melons, and grapes
respond well to the stress of salinity, providing
sweeter and firmer fruit which makes them
ideal for export. They bring high prices due
to their out-of-season availability - an important
factor, as desert agriculture is an expensive
business.
Introducing and adapting new species - Many
crops indigenous to countries with warm climates
can be adapted to conditions in the Negev.
It takes several growing seasons to determine
the viability and marketability of exotic
fruits, flowers and ornamental plants; successful
varieties are very profitable.
Preserving biogenetic resources and promoting biodiversity
- The threat of global warming makes the conservation of indigenous
plants a very significant issue. Ecosystems on the edges of dryland
zones withstand a considerable amount of fluctuation in climatic conditions,
and therefore are natural assets for ensuring future global food security.
The biogenetic resources of these transitional areas are being preserved
as repositories for the restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems
suffering from desertification and global warming.
Management
of Grazing Lands
Even fairly simple conservation techniques
can turn an overgrazed, barren land into a
desert pasture that will sustain sizable herds
of livestock. Israel has averted the risk
of desertification from overgrazing in the
semi-arid northern Negev by regulating the
number and type of livestock and limiting
grazing to specific areas during specific
seasons.
'Savannization' is the effective management
of an entire watershed, which is divided into
runoff contributing and runoff collecting
areas where indigenous and exotic trees are
planted. Man-made savannas on previously barren
slopes prevent soil erosion, promote biodiversity
and restore limited productivity. Grasslands
sprout around the widely spaced trees, providing
pleasant scenery and limited grazing land.
Run-off agroforestry directs rainwater from
a large watershed area into a lower receiving
area which is planted with orchards intercropped
with fodder. It provides food, firewood and
fodder with a minimal investment in infrastructure.
Undergrazing can be as harmful to biodiversity as
overgrazing. Controlled grazing on forest undergrowth promotes the diversification
of species, while reducing the danger of fires from accumulated dry
undergrowth. The careful management of agricultural and pastoral land
provides a fine balance supporting livestock while promoting biodiversity.
Increasing
Production While Reducing Desertification
- Mission Impossible?
In Israel efficient water distribution methods
permit irrigation of secondary soils; brackish
water is used for irrigating an increasing
number of salt tolerant species; treated effluent
is used for irrigation. All this sounds like
a recipe for desertification, threatening
to salinize soil and aquifers.
A number of methods counteract the potential
hazards; protected agriculture and drip irrigation,
of course, minimize the amount of water used,
reducing the danger of salinization. Organic
materials from urban and agricultural waste
tend to enrich sandy soils, which act as a
filter for poor quality water, purifying it
even further before it percolates into the
aquifers. Compost, used as bed material in
greenhouses and as fertilizer in unprotected
fields, is also used to rehabilitate saline
soils.
Drippers with fresh or brackish water can
be used to [each saline soil in the root zones
of plants. Lowering the salinity in the root
zone makes agriculture possible in previously
barren areas and avoids salinization of aquifers.
This technique is suitable for certain areas
and makes agriculture possible even in the
salt encrusted Dead Sea Valley.
Awareness of risk sparks careful monitoring and continual
research to improve productivity and preserve or increase biodiversity,
while avoiding the danger of desertification.
Living
in the Desert: Sustainable Dryland Development
Drylands harbor marvelous resources plant
and animal life, hidden springs and large
aquifers, solar and wind energy, open horizons
and natural beauty. When used in a sustainable
manner these resources can provide creative
avenues of enterprise to dryland residents,
bringing a measure of economic stability and
a fine quality of life.
Aquaculture - The abundant brackish
and geothermal waters in aquifers under the
Negev provide an ideal environment for fishfarming
- an enterprise which is proliferating. Warm
temperatures promote growth rates far higher
than those of similar enterprises in the northern
part of the country. Some settlements have
opened fish restaurants on the 'shores' of
their fishponds, and retail outlets to supplement
their successful wholesale businesses.
Another aspect of aquaculture is the cultivation
of micro-algae, which thrive in brackish water
and high solar radiation. These microscopic
organisms are used as fish food, making their
cultivation a complement to fish breeding.
A natural product, their use in health foods,
vitamins, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals is
sparking new developments in biotechnology.
Solar Energy - Drylands are blessed
with an abundance of solar radiation and free,
open spaces to absorb it - prerequisites for
the development of solar energy. Research
programs are dedicated to developing solar
radiation as an energy source for local and
regional consumption and for export. This
technology can provide a viable economic enterprise
which does not jeopardize natural resources.
Tourism - The Negev is rich in natural
beauty, geological wonders, home to a wealth
of plants and wildlife and liberally sprinkled
with historical sites. There are also health
benefits which attract tens of thousands of
tourists. Tourism is a source of income, but
it must be carefully controlled, as over-development
can degrade the environment. Careless concern
for resources in sensitive areas such as the
Dead Sea region and Eilat is self defeating
when it degrades the environment which is
the very reason for their attraction.
Value-Added Industries - Many agricultural
enterprises serve as the basis for industries
which provide economic diversity to residents
of the region. A dairy on a kibbutz in the
south, now exports a wide variety of products
to the entire country. Grapes grown in saline
water are the basis of a fledgling wine industry.
Other new industries are also based on locally
grown crops or other regional resources.
Biosphere Reserves - Every part of
the country has suffered the loss of biodiversity
and the disappearance of precious biogenetic
resources. Biosphere reserves promote indigenous
agriculture, pastoralism, ecotourism, and
make nature conservation compatible with sustainable
development. The Mt. Carmel Biosphere Reserve
in the dry sub-humid north has recently opened
and a biosphere reserve is being established
in the Negev.
Afforestation - Limited, creative
afforestation in drylands is sustainable and
there are several benefits; most directly
it prevents erosion. New forests also sequester
carbon dioxide, mitigating the "greenhouse
effect" and global warming. Several methods
of afforestation such as savannization are
particularly well suited to drylands. Others
include planting green belts around towns
using indigenous and exotic species and creating
limans - small oases of indigenous trees planted
in low areas. These provide welcome shade,
pleasant scenery, and limited forage for livestock.
National
Program for Combating Desertification and
Achieving Sustainable Development
As a party to the UN Convention to Combat
Desertification, the Government of Israel
has formed a National Steering Committee for
Combating Desertification which is planning
the country's National Action Program. It
includes: a) measures to prevent soil erosion
in the irrigated croplands of the northern
Negev and in the rangelands of the central
Negev; b) increasing the use of treated wastewater
for dryland agriculture while minimizing the
danger of soil and aquifer contamination and
salinization; c) promotion of alternative
livelihoods to desert residents through ecotourism,
aquaculture, sustainable and environmentally
friendly industries, etc.
The Program also calls upon universities
and research institutions in the country to
redirect research efforts toward combating
desertification. All of these have programs
that are relevant:
Tel Aviv University: Plant genetic resources
and biodiversity.
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Faculty
of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Quality: Basic and applied
research and extension education on and zone agriculture and related
areas including animal sciences, water and soil sciences and ecology.
The Technion: Water resource development and
management and agricultural engineering.
Haifa University: Plant ecology and genetics,
biodiversity, socio-economic and water issues.
Weizmann Institute: Solar energy, plant genetics
and water resources.
Bar-Ilan University: Dryland soil biology and
agricultural biotechnology.
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Institutes
of Applied Research and the Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research: Basic and applied research, education and training programs in most
aspects of desert studies.
Agricultural Research Organization: Basic and
applied research, extension education in agriculture, water and soil
sciences.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Science
Regional Centers for R&D: Applied research tailored to local
needs in various areas of the country.
Israel and the World - Joining
Forces to Combat Desertification
The Center for International Cooperation
(MASHAV) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
is the initiator of many of the country's
international cooperative programs, demonstration
projects, training courses and research activities.
Working with the country's institutes of higher
education and research organizations, it also
has agreements with USAID, UNDP, UNESCO, FAO
and the European Community for cooperative
programs in many fields, but the emphasis
is on agriculture. MASHAV works with countries
in the Middle East and on six continents,
conducts courses in Israel and abroad, and
provides consultants on specific problems.
Many international funding organizations,
government agencies and private foundations,
working with local academic and research institutions,
finance cooperative research, development
and training programs. Some cooperative programs
include studies of watershed and salt water
intrusion with countries bordering the Mediterranean;
rangeland and livestock management with countries
in Africa and the CIS; establishing regional
germplasm banks; irrigation techniques, protected
agriculture and crop development with countries
around the globe; and regional solar energy
projects.
Israel and the UN Convention to
Combat Desertification
Since the very first session in Nairobi,
Israel has taken part in every meeting of
the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee
on Desertification (INCD), and contributed
to the final text of the Convention to Combat
Desertification (CCD).
It took part in the first meeting of Asian
countries in Bangkok, and chaired the committee
that drafted the Implementation Annex for
Asia, which was later adopted by the INCD
as the final Annex to the Convention. Israel
took part in the governmental and non-govern
mental meetings of the Asian African forum,
and participated in the New Delhi meeting,
contributing to the regional action program
to combat desertification in Asia. At the
Ministerial meeting in Beijing, Israel was
represented by Mr. Rafael Eitan, the Deputy
Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture
and the Environment.
In April, 1997, under UN auspices, Israel
hosted a three-day meeting on synergies between
the Rio de Janeiro Conventions on Biodiversity,
Climate Change, Combating Desertification
and the non-legally binding Forest Principles.
The meeting took place at Ben-Gurion University's
Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research
where 40 scientists, decision makers and legal
specialists from around the world gathered
to recommend measures for implementing the
Conventions.
As part of its commitment to the CCD, Israel
is creating the International Center for Combating
Desertification at the Ben-Gurion University
campus in Sede Boqer. The International Center
wilt initiate activities in 1998 and be fully
operational by 2002. It wilt include:
The Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert
Research, which will be expanded to provide
research facilities for about 100 scientists
engaged in four research programs: The Dryland
Environment (physical and biotic), Man in
the Drylands (socio-economic research), Water
Resource Management and Agriculture in Drylands.
The School for Continuing Education and International
Cooperation, which will give short training
courses to community leaders, technical experts,
extension officers, etc. from around the world.
The Computer Mediated Information Center,
which will employ advanced technologies to
collect store, analyze, interpret and disseminate
information on regional and global desertification
and on programs and technologies to combat
desertification.
The Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies
will award M.Sc. Degrees in Desert Studies with specialization in agrobiology,
ecology, hydrology and social sciences. The School will open in the
autumn of 1998 and will accept 100 new students from affected countries
each year.
For further information contact:
Center for International Cooperation (MASHAV)
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Romema, Jerusalem 91950
Israel
Tel: 972-2-5303370
Fax: 972-2-5303727
Sources: Ministry
of Foreign Affairs |